Supersized water and ice kiosks continue to pop up in the Midwest. The owners of these standalone kiosks advertise their products as safer and purer than tap water.
But researchers from the University of Iowa found that water purchased from these kiosks in several states contained lead. In at least one Kansas location, the level of lead was twice the level deemed safe by the Environmental Protection Agency.
The majority of the tested kiosks used a process called reverse osmosis to remove fluoride, residual disinfectant and nitrates.
Iowa researchers discovered the lead was the most pronounced in the plumbing after reverse osmosis treatment. The treatment itself caused the water to be corrosive, and the lead from the plumbing leached into the water. This concerned the researchers because reverse osmosis forces water through a membrane, creating treated water, according to the EPA.
According to the published research, many kiosks source their water from the local municipal water supply.
David Cwiertny was one of the co-leaders for the research. He said the plumbing was being sold to manufacturers as lead-free. But in combination with the use of reverse osmosis treatment, lead-free does not mean “zero lead,” he said.
“You really have to be careful when you mix reverse osmosis treated water with lead-free plumbing because I think we are finding pretty convincingly that that's the combination that leads to lead release,” Cwiertny said.
Researchers sampled water from kiosks for metals such as tin, zinc, lead and copper. Their findings revealed that out of the 20 kiosks tested in six states, 15 contained traces of lead. Four brands of kiosks were tested by the researchers: Kooler Ice, Highland Pure Water & Ice, Twice the Ice and Polar Station.
Most kiosks had levels considered safe by federal regulators.
At a Kooler Ice kiosk in Baxter Springs, Kansas, the water contained lead at 19.1 parts per billion, almost double the EPA’s guidelines, which state that drinking water should have no more than 10 parts per billion.
Lead is a neurotoxin that can cause permanent brain damage in babies and children.
Christina Pacheco, assistant professor at the University of Kansas Medical Center, said there are no safe levels of lead exposure, particularly for children.
“When we look at the brain and the nervous system, it can disrupt brain development, which can result in learning difficulties, lower IQ, attention problems, memory issues and behavioral challenges,” Pacheco said.
Prolonged lead exposure in adults causes kidney damage, reduced sperm count in men and fertility issues in women. Lead exposure is also linked to some types of cancer.
The research was conducted in December 2023 and September 2024. Researchers tested kiosks in Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma, Illinois and Arkansas during both research periods. They also did follow-up sampling in March 2025.
What is it?
An ice and water kiosk is a standalone, self-service machine that is about the size of a dump truck. The kiosks are typically located in parking lots near other businesses. The University of Iowa’s researchers found that “the kiosks are more likely to be located in non-white, lower socioeconomic areas.”
In some kiosks, a gallon of water costs 25 cents, with ice costing $1.25 for a 10-pound bag.
Samantha Zuhlke was the co-lead for the research and lead author. She said major ice and water kiosks brands began in the 1980s.
“In the past decade or so, a couple of franchises have exploded. They are fast-growing franchises in the U.S. Depending on where you live in the country sort of dictates how common they are,” Zuhlke said.
She said she was “flabbergasted” when the initial research detected lead.
Researchers collected the samples by purchasing water for testing back at their lab. They noticed customers purchasing 5-gallon jugs of water for drinking and food preparation.
Researching a puzzle
The University of Iowa researchers said one reason people use the kiosks may be perceptions about tap water. A study from non-profit Environmental Working Group reported that 51% of Americans believe their tap water is unsafe.
Water quality may be another reason. Leroy Davidson of Opolis, Kansas, said he gets water from a Twice the Ice kiosk in Pittsburg, Kansas. Davidson said that he lives in the country and that the calcium from his tap water “gums up” his coffee machine. It was not one of the kiosks tested in the research.
On a recent day in February, Davidson pulled his pick-up truck up to the kiosk and filled two gallon jugs. He said he’d rather get water at this kiosk twice a month than install a water softener in his home.
“You’re looking at $10,000 and you get that thing put in, and then you gotta put salt pellets in it,” Davidson said.
Cwiertny, who is the director of the Center for Health Effects of Environmental Contamination at the University of Iowa, said he hopes the research conveys a clear message calling for greater regulation of water treatment.
“Whenever we’re applying a technology to water treatment, it needs to be done right and you need to do monitoring to back it up, or else consequences that are unintended can happen,” Cwiertny said.
The University of Iowa research revealed an instance of “innovation outpacing public policy” when it comes to regulating the water and ice kiosks. The research team discovered a regulatory gray area when it comes to these kiosks.
In Iowa, neither the Environmental Protection Agency nor the Iowa Department of Natural Resources holds primary regulation for water kiosks, according to the University of Iowa’s research.
It’s unclear what agencies, if any, regulate the kiosks in other states. In an email to The Midwest Newsroom, the Food and Drug Administration said it “generally” regulates water and ice kiosks.
“We had this puzzle of ‘why are people spending so much money on water in these kiosks, despite the fact they’re less strictly regulated than tap water?’” Zuhlke said.
Response from kiosk companies
Zuhlke and Cwiertny said Kooler Ice and Highland Pure Water & Ice were receptive to their findings and allowed their teams to inspect their machines.
Kooler Ice is a Georgia-based company that has expanded to 1,600 locations worldwide. Its website clearly explains the reverse osmosis mechanism.
Scott Hadwiger, the vice president of Kooler Ice, said the company is taking the research seriously. Leaders are assessing the findings to determine the next steps, he said.
“What we can say now is that we are committed to producing all of our products in full compliance with applicable health and safety standards,” Hadwiger wrote in an email to The Midwest Newsroom.
Highland Pure has nearly 30 kiosks in Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma and Ohio, with more in Kentucky and Indiana.
One Highland Pure kiosk in Muscatine, Iowa, tested at 9.23 parts per billion for lead.
McLain Hoogland, president of Highland Pure, said the company is working on a remedy: replacing the “elbows” of the internal equipment with plastic PEX, also known as cross-linked polyethylene, to prevent further lead exposure.
He said he understood the research and respected the University of Iowa’s decision to come to him. He said the water is still safe for consumption and is cleaner than water in some rural locations.
“Understanding the level is still a very minimal amount and shouldn’t deter people from using it because it is clean water,” Hoogland said.
In an email to The Midwest Newsroom, Lee Pantalone, vice president of sales and marketing for Twice the Ice (owned by Ice House America), said the company manufactures and sells ice and water equipment to independent, third-party operators.
“Ice House America does not own, operate, or manage independently operated locations and does not oversee their ongoing compliance. We suggest that all questions and inquiries concerning the specific unit at issue should be directed to the independent owner operator responsible for that location,” he told The Midwest Newsroom in an email.
Highland Pure’s website says that its use of reverse osmosis technology provides water free of minerals and other contaminants.
If Midwest residents have used the kiosks and are concerned about possible exposure, Cwiertny said, they should talk to the nearest county public health official to discuss a possible lead exposure test.
CORRECTION: This article incorrectly identified a Twice the Ice kiosk in Baxter Springs, Kansas, as the kiosk testing high for lead levels. The kiosk that actually showed that its water contained lead at 19.1 parts per billion was a Kooler Ice kiosk in Baxter Springs, Kansas. We have corrected the article to reflect this.
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METHODOLOGY
For this story, reporter Rachel Schnelle reviewed embargoed research from the University of Iowa about reverse osmosis ice and water kiosks tested in Missouri, Iowa and Kansas. She interviewed lead researchers and directors David Cwiertny, Samantha Zuhlke, Danielle Land and Drew Latta. She interviewed Highland Pure President McClain Hoogland. She also received emails from Vice President of Operations for Kooler Ice Scott Hadwiger and from Lee Pantalone with Ice House America. To determine how lead affects the body, she spoke with Christina Pacheco, assistant professor at the University of Kansas Medical Center. Schnelle also interviewed Kansas residents Leroy Davidson and Stephen Eby about their experience using Twice the Ice water and ice kiosks. Schnelle first discovered Iowa’s research by attending Wichita State University Midwest Lead Summit in September 2025. Schnelle is the first reporter to cover this story in detail.
REFERENCES
Water Quality of U.S. Drinking Water Kiosks: Lead Release from “Lead-free” Plumbing after Reverse Osmosis Treatment | University of Iowa | February 2026
iEWG finds over half of people surveyed think tap water is unsafe | Environmental Working Group, 2022
Basic Information about Lead in drinking water | Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). EPA.
Lead Exposure in Children | American Academy of Pediatrics, 2025
Kooler Ice | Homepage
Twice the Ice | Homepage
Highland Pure | Homepage
TYPE OF ARTICLE
News – Based on facts, either observed and verified firsthand by the reporter, or reported and verified from knowledgeable sources.
